Technology and Global Inequality

An analysis the effects of ICTs on empowerment and quality of life in developing countries

The growth of technology, particularly information and communications technologies, is a multifaceted phenomenon that continues to shape the world around us. Apart from the changes we see in our day to day lives, an important effect of this growth is less obvious- that of technology’s influence on the developing world. There is a divided opinion among scientists and researchers on the overall effect technology has had and will have on developing countries and underprivileged populations.

Technology can be seen as a catalyst to divide us further, separating society into those with unlimited, free access to the advantages that technology can offer and those without. However, there is a school of thought that believes that it can also be used to bolster opportunities for disenfranchised populations in these countries in a way not possible before.

There are various ways in which ICTs can empower women in developing nations, as well as marginalized rural populations.

In addition, the quality of life in these nations has the potential to be bettered through specific use of certain ICTs for healthcare and education. In order to accurately examine the effects that a constantly changing and increasingly technological world can have on the global stage, it is important to first appreciate the gravity of the change itself. Although almost anybody that is paying attention can agree that the world is changing, unless one closely examines the effects of technology, it is hard to understand the sheer rate at which it is shifting.

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Researchers, authors, and scientists in the previous decades have spent a great deal of time examining the rate of change that our society is experiencing. Specifically, the effect of technology on society as it grows with, and may surpass, the growth model proposed by Moore’s law. In order to understand this, something akin to the second derivative has to be examined. Growth is change in society, but the growth of growth has actually sped up, leading to the exponential pace of change we see today (Friedman, 2017). Change itself is accelerating, making it a concept that is hard enough to grasp conceptually, and harder still to prevent large factions of society from being left in the dust.

The most widely accepted and studied growth model for technological advances is Moore’s law. The theory was postulated in 1964 by Intel cofounder Gordon Moore. In it, he states that computing power, based on the speed and power of microchips, would double roughly every two years (Friedman, 2017). This estimate has proven accurate for the last 50 years, primarily due to the miniaturization of computer chips and the cramming of more silicon transistors into chips (Simonite, 2016).

There is some concern that Moore’s law is coming to an end, partly due to the lower bound on just how small a transistor can get. Once small enough (nanometer scale), the laws of quantum mechanics start to come into play. However, even this physical limitation may be overcome by learning to make the properties of quantum physics to work to our advantage.

Quantum computing relies on the fact that a qubit (the quantum computing parallel for a boolean bit in traditional computing) “can represent one, zero, or any superposition of these two states” (Poo and Wang, 2018). In an interview with the National Science Review, Andrew Chi-Chih Yao, Dean of the Institute for Interdisciplinary Information Sciences at Tsinghua University, explains the possibilities offered by quantum computing.

He outlines the advantage quantum computing has over traditional computing, explaining that “compared to traditional computers, where one operation involves one defined path, the operation of quantum computers can proceed along multiple computational paths … because quantum wave functions dictate the existence of multiple states at the same time. This phenomenon is known as quantum parallelism” (Poo and Wang, 2018).

Quantum parallelism gives quantum computing an immense advantage in speed and power over traditional computers, and if learned to harness correctly, can change the the pace of technological innovation. In addition to the future in quantum computing, there is an emphasis on advancing algorithms and software that would cause an increase in productivity for specialized technology comparable with Moore’s law. For example, genetic sequencing technologies have surpassed Moore’s law already (Burke, 2012), and it has been shown that by specializing machines more and improving algorithms, deep learning technology can be improved vastly. Therefore, though growth may be changing, it is by no means slowing down.

The takeaway is that technology is rapidly changing, and these changes have already led to and will lead to more sizeable shifts in society. This rapid pace of innovation begs the question- will everybody be able to keep up? In Yuval Noah Harari’s book Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow, he paints a bleak picture for the future of people who cannot get ahead of the current technological revolution.

Specifically, he argues that as technology gets more advanced and ubiquitous, those with the access and the money to purchase it will do so, thus furthering their position in society. Conversely, without these means will be unable to keep up and this will augment the gap between the privileged and underprivileged. This means that nations whose citizens cannot compete on the technology-centered stage of the future will eventually become obsolete. Some may argue that this is true with any other age of innovation in the past, but the second machine age (which has been characterized roughly since the internet took off) is distinctly remarkable because it has shifted how innovation occurs.

Nowadays, innovation can occur in a garage with one computer, and that person can go on to build a multi million (or billion) dollar company. His or her success can occur with much fewer people than it would have taken in the past to reach that level of prosperity. A distinction between past and present innovation is clear in an example that Harrari gives about Kodak versus Instagram.

Kodak was created in the late 19th century, and between its conception and the early 20th century, it became a giant in its industry. By the time the company had risen to such a level, Kodak had hundreds of thousands of workers in its employ and indirectly many sectors of manufacturing/labor.

Instagram cofounders Kevin Systrom and Mike Krieger took Instagram from a personal project to almost a billion-dollar company with just a handful of engineers (Isaac, 2018). The huge discrepancy between the number of people that benefitted from a successful business between now and then is concerning for a majority of the population. In relation to developing countries, this is particularly distressing. Where before there was a relationship between a successful company and the amount of natural resources and manual labor it required, this correlation does not exist to the same extent with current trends in technology.

Because much innovation and growth is software based, there are not many natural resources that are required- a potential source of employ in developing countries. Many developing countries have natural resources and manual labor to provide, and though not the best jobs to have, it does add to their economies. Proportionally, much less manufacturing, and by extension global labor, is required for innovation today. Thus, there is fear that the current trend in technology-based innovation will render populations from developing countries superfluous.

The change described previously focused on technological capabilities in general, but a very large contributing factor to a changing world is internet and communication technologies. The prevalence of the internet has created a more connected and global world than imaginable a mere few decades ago. However, inconsistencies in skills and access to technology between developed and developing countries have led researchers to coin the term “digital divide”. The phrase refers to the degree of difference from which richer and poorer countries benefit from the effects of communication technologies (James, 2005).

There have been various studies done to further elaborate and identify the nuances of this observed digital divide. Van Dijk and Hacker (2003) published a study in which they attempted to dissect the term “digital divide” and analyze its nuances. They came to the conclusion that “access to digital resources is a multi- faceted phenomenon consisting of four factors that work to regulate access; psychological, material, skills and usage.” Thus, it is much less clear-cut than those who have access and those that don’t, i.e. between developed countries and developing countries. In this definition, though, lies hope that the effects of growing technology may not be as stratifying as previously thought. Developed countries do not have a monopoly on things like “psychological will”, and “skills” can be taught. Hence, one of the biggest influences in whether the rising presence of technology will exacerbate or alleviate global inequality is correctly harnessing the potential that technology provides.

The construction of the digital divide has already occurred, and its existence is the reality of the present. However, through communications technologies, with the future comes a distinct opportunity to bridge this divide and provide benefits for the developing world that were actually impossible without these technologies. Many developing countries contain cultures ruled by patriarchal notions, creating historically oppressive societies for women. Though the digital divide refers to the division between more and less affluent populations, when talking about developing countries in general, yet another divide is observed. This is the internal digital divide between the sexes in developing countries. ICTs, like much technology, have historically been seen as ‘toys for boys’ (Faulkner, 2001), based on the unfounded assumption that women are less interested, less capable, or less tech-savvy than their male counterparts. This distinction is not uncommon in developed countries either, but is especially prevalent in developing countries with deep-rooted patriarchal principles.

Studies show that women in the developing world have significantly lower technology use than men, but this is not a direct a result of the technology itself. Disparities in female versus male use of rising technologies is a manifestation of already entrenched socio-cultural attitudes about the role of women in society (Antonio and Tuffley, 2014). When a study was done with data sets from 12 Latin American and 13 African countries from 2005 to 2008, it was found that when controlling for variables such as employment, education and income, women are actually more active users of digital tools than men (Hilbert, 2011). Hence, rather than this divide being evidence supporting how technology has worsened stratification, such technology presents a unique possibility to be a tool in bolstering the lives of women in these societies.

An important way in which ICTs can help to empower women is by helping them achieve more financial independence and security. That economic independence is an essential method for empowerment of disadvantaged populations is not a novel idea. It is a well known and well studied phenomena. Just one example is a study done on self-help groups for women from two villages in rural India. The groups focused on coupling economic empowerment with personal empowerment. The qualitative data exhibited positive appraisals of self-worth, purpose and independence after the study (Moyle et al., 2006), supporting the idea that financial success can carry over into personal and social empowerment.

A method by which ICTs can help aid women with economic empowerment is by offering women entrepreneurs unique access to a community that would not be possible without such technologies. An example of this was carried out in Macedonia. A new e- Biz project was launched, and it aimed to stimulate the growth of small and medium enterprises (SMEs), specifically ones owned or managed by women (Brodman and Berazneva, 2007).

They equipped these SMEs with “high impact” ICTs to achieve both concrete impact on companies’ bottom lines and industry-wide scope. They found that by the end of the second year, the e-Biz initiative caused a concrete improvement in competitiveness of the women-run businesses. In addition, they found that information and communications technology applications that have quick pay-off are additionally helpful because the women often had little to no discretionary income in the past (Brodman and Berazneva, 2007). ICTs also provide women in developing countries a gateway to information and communication to the rest of the world. With access to these ICTs, they get uncensored information on what is available online. Access to this information can change their own views of their status in society, and level the playing field by giving them access to the same information as the men. For example, Human Network International conducted a case study that equipped women in domestic abuse circumstances with technology to learn about their rights and options, and 91% reported that this affected how they handled decision-making in their homes afterward (Contes, 2016).

The third principal way in which ICTs have the potential to reduce gender inequality in developing countries is by helping with community building and political organization. Women can band with other women in similar situation who are struggling with familiar issues. According to “Gender Relations and Technological Change in Asia” in Current Sociology (2002), “women’s groups in various parts of Asia are able to keep in touch with each other and with groups in other parts of the world through e-mail and other such communication systems…Resulting networks of such organizations are able to work in close coordination in conducting campaigns on various issues affecting women.”

Hence, with access, these technologies can give women information, a community, and a voice. Outside the scope of women’s rights and ecommerce, a particular use for ICTs in developing countries is for e-Government. Higher quality, cost-effective government services can be offered via ICTs and they can help bolster a better relationship between a government and its citizens (Ndou, 2004). E-Government provides these nations with a tremendous opportunity for movement forward into the 21st century. Specifically, it can help improve the status of marginalized groups in terms of representation and connectivity to legal information. M.S. Ullah writes about the influence of ICTs on asymmetric power relations in rural Bangladesh. His study highlights an effort made by the government in which ICTs attempt to empower the rural poor.

They “provide one-stop government services, including online birth and death registrations. They facilitate job applications, … and visa processing…Facilities for internet browsing, word-processing and printing, photography and mobile phone credit refill are provided. Also social services and awareness programmes related to anti-dowry, anti- human trafficking, arsenic contamination and climate change, as well as health and agriculture matters, are provided to the rural poor” Undoubtedly, there is a myriad of uses for ICTs for legal purposes. In this way, ICTs have connected the people within developing countries to the government in a way not possible before, presenting the opportunity to strengthen the country.

Apart from the potential ICTs have to help marginalized and underprivileged groups like women and the rural poor in developing countries, another important potential for ICTs is in eHealth. The use of ICTs in the health sector has begun to be studied, and according to one study published in the Health Affairs journal, the researchers found that systems that improve communication between institutions, assist in ordering and managing medications, and help monitor and detect patients who might abandon care show promise (Blaya et al, 2010). The same study goes on to state that personal digital devices such as PDAs and mobile devices convincingly demonstrate a positive effect on data collection time and quality. There are already initiatives in place for promoting eHealth in underprivileged countries, such as the Telemedicine Network for Francophone African Countries (RAFT), HINARI Access to Research in Health Programme, Portuguese Network and Pan- African e-Network Project. Many of these initiatives rely on mobile phones as the primary instrument for connection.

According the World Health Organization, these initiatives “are using mobile phones to support the delivery of health care, awareness and education; remote data collection; remote monitoring and home care; communicating treatments to patients; and reporting and responding to disease outbreaks and emergencies. Others are using satellite technologies to broadcast health promotion to patients and health workers in hospitals and clinics.” The reason there is potential for eHealth initiatives via mobile phones to succeed is because the use of mobile telephones is growing. In fact, in much of sub-Saharan Africa, there are more mobile phones than fixed-line phones and the use of mobile phones in many Asian countries is on the rise (Kaplan, 2006). In addition to equipping citizens with easier access to an array of information, ICTs can also be used to aid healthcare professionals in offering the best service.

An even newer and novel approach to using ICTs for healthcare in developing countries is the use of Internet of Things (IoT) devices. IoT devices in this case are characterized as “tiny, low-cost devices equipped with sensors and radios to build networks that are capable of sensing and controlling the physical world” (Lawrence et al, 2017). A pilot project was carried out in Kikit, DR Congo. In this case study, they sought to determine the potential of Internet of Things (IoT) devices in developing nations’ health sector. They combined an innovative new networking technology, LoRa, which is ideal for resource-limited zones due to its low cost, low power usage, and long range, with IoT devices (Lawrence et al, 2017). The IoT devices were used to track the temperature of blood products, ensuring their security and viability through a monitoring system that was decentralized and required low power and upkeep. The key takeaway from this study was that IoT technologies paired with smart networks like LoRa can actually function well in areas with little existing infrastructure. Therefore, implementation of such technology paired with smart networking and infrastructure could significantly decrease the amount of money and intervention required.

The final way in which ICTs provide abundant potential for benefitting developing countries is through MOOCs. MOOC stands for “massive open online courses”, and it’s a concept that stands to offer top tier education to anybody with an internet connection. Once again, access is vital. However, with access, they provide those who do not have physical access the opportunity to get an education. Access to education is an especially important step in diminishing the vast opportunity gap between developing and developed countries. Privilege, as a concept, refers to an unequal starting point in life. It can be applied to the difference in opportunities and amount of hard work required for members of underprivileged societies to get to the same place as those in affluent, opportunity- abundant situations. Education is an important stepping stone in evening this playing field, offering the opportunity to bridge the inequality.

MOOCs are considered a means for democratizing education- opening it up for all instead of a select elite such as those with the means and location to receive the education in person at higher learning institutions. Not only can they provide a way to learn, many MOOCs are taught by world- renowned faculty from some of the best institutions in the world, including MIT, Harvard, and Stanford.

MOOCs and online resources are enabling those that have no schools or colleges nearby to learn important material to get ahead in the world. In addition, marginalized groups are able to educate themselves and arm themselves with skills that can help them move up in society. For example, “the sex differences in the magnitude of relative academic strengths and pursuit of STEM degrees” rises with national gender inequality (Stoet and Gaery, 2018). The article states that there has been observed a larger willingness and interest for education in STEM fields from women in developing countries than in countries with more even gender equality. This is perceived to be a result of an opportunity being presented to boost their status in a more discriminatory society.

Unlike other ICT applications mentioned earlier, the MOOC is especially distinct in that it is the only scalable educational technology that was developed specifically by and for educators. Nearly all other technologies for education, such as radio and TV, were adaptations of technology developments for other sectors (Balaji and Patru, 2016). That being said, the article recognized that there is a need for further modification of MOOCs to specifically suit the needs of learners in developing countries. Students in these nations have relatively limited bandwidth of the Internet, require offline access to learning materials, and are not as used to the online, peer-to- peer interactions that are very prevalent in the standard design of MOOCs (Balaji and Patru, 2016).

Though MOOCs provide a great opportunity in theory, their potential has yet to be completely utilized in developing countries. Studies shows that the bulk of MOOC users are already employed, have post-secondary degrees, and have encountered few barriers related to the affordability of higher education (Dillahunt et al, 2014). This is partially due to lack of access, but also due to the need for MOOCs to be adaptable to the developing nations’ environments and citizens. The article points out that current structure in place does not permit widespread benefits to be realized.

Unfortunately, with MOOCs along with the ICTs that can empower women, ICTs in healthcare, and e-Government ICTs, an important caveat is that these are all unrealized potentials. Widespread and nondiscriminatory access to these technologies is paramount, and for that, deliberate steps have yet to be taken. Almost all the studies that explore the enormous positive effects that ICTs can have on various sectors in quality of life urge political and private sectors to make better goals and to use research on how to best implement these technologies to maximize the benefits they offer to developing nations. It has been made clear that technology is here to stay and its presence in our day to day lives will only grow.

With the pace at which technology is already changing, and the changes yet to come, it is paramount to learn to harness these changes to benefit all populations. Since the age of the Internet, of globalization at a scale previously unprecedented, of unimaginable booms in data and connectivity, a digital divide has been born and has indisputably created yet another partition between developed and developing nations. Amidst this growing inequality, however, ICTs also provide a great deal of potential to benefit developing nations if harnessed deliberately and correctly.

There are important uses for ICTs to aid marginalized and powerless groups in these societies, to connect citizens to the government for improved legal knowledge and representation, to improve quality of life via better healthcare, and to offer a more equal opportunity to get ahead in the world through education via MOOCs. However, these are all untapped potentials. The road ahead requires measured steps to be taken in order for these enormous potentials to be recognized.

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