Participation of Women in Leadership

 Empirical review of the study

Women empowerment in political, economic and social aspects gets attention and different researches were conducted in different times ,moreover women participation in leadership and decision making is global agenda in this case researches from different countries including Ethiopia were conducted.(Meaza,2009). Based on their investigations different ideas were forwarded to empower women at global as well as local level.

 Global status of women participation in leadership

Women around the world underrepresented in political, economical and social issues.

Though women represent half of the population at global level, but their involvement in higher and decision making positions is still low. (Berouk, 2005; cited by Letensea, 2015)

 African status of women leadership participation

The protocol to the African charter on human and people rights on the rights of women in Africa (the African women’s right protocol) adopted in 2003 affirms the principle of equal participation and the use of affirmative action to ensure equal and effective participation of women in leadership position.

The adoption of CEDAW by African countries except Sudan and Somalia indicates that high level of commitment by African countries

 Ethiopian status of women leadership participation

Like many African Countries, the majority of Ethiopian women hold low status in the society. Different studies indicated the low status of women in developing countries in general and in Ethiopia in particular (Hirut, 2015; Letensae,2o15;Meseret, 2016).They have been denied equal access to education, training, and gainful employment opportunities, and their involvement in policy formulation and decision making processes has been minimal.

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According to historical records, women in Ethiopia have always remained on the sidelines with men in every aspect of life including pea building, war, development and the like by offering massive contribution their countries wellbeing (FDRE Constitution, 1995)

In our society, women involve mainly in domestic activities where as men involve in outdoor activities like education and community services. In relation to this, the FDRE gender perspective guide line (2001:1) shows that, women in the rural part of Ethiopia used more than 15 hours per day for activities like fire wood collection, water fetching, childcare, petty trade, spinning vegetable, and gardening. Similarly with the rural women, the majority of urban women in Ethiopia also engage in informal economic activities like selling of foods and drinks, petty trades, and spinning.

As a result, they have little or no time for education. As Netsanet (2013) stated in her research citing World Bank report (2011:21); ‘males, unlike females, have sufficient time for schooling and therefore, this creates discrimination of women from men and this attitude can become a trend from generation to generation’. So that, this gender stereotyping of males and females in the society creates differences in employment rate and the number of women especially in professional areas becomes low.

In support of this, Tacoli (2012: 17) focuses that, since women engaged more in familial activities than men, they mostly participate in lower quality paid work. As the report of UN (2004: 34) indicates that, regard to parliament participation of women, although women represent 49 percent of the population, they only represent 7.6 percent of the parliament.

Literatures describe that even if women’s formal participation in the highest leadership position was formally closed, it is documented that throughout the world, women had played critical roles in times of wars and peace as community organizers and activists. Above all, for instance, an Ethiopian Women history, contributions and brilliant leadership role which have Emperor Minilik’s (1877-1913) first formal wife, Bafena and second legal wife Empress Taitu had played unforgettable history and comes first when one talk about Ethiopian women contributions.

For instance, Taitu was acted as the chief advisor of Emperor with particular influence in the area of foreign relations. She holds high profile in the history for patriotism and uncompromisingly pursuing Ethiopia’s independence (Meaza, 2009).

 Barriers to women’s career advancement in leadership

Different scholars categorize barriers of women similarly socialization, structure of career, timing, lack of opportunity, and conflicts and tensions stated as barriers of women career advancement (Wallace, 2002; cited by Meseret, 2016). In support of this male dominance is the main obstacle to women rising to top positions in corporations and politics (Jakobsh, 2012; cited by Meseret, 2016).

Furthermore, traditional gender roles, still widespread in society, are barriers to women climbing corporate ladders. In addition to the above stated barriers women are impeded with internal barriers; women’s underrepresentation in leadership positions may be attributed also to women’s own decision not to apply for promotion in education for a variety of reasons, such as lack of necessary aspirations, lack of awareness of the promotion system and lack of confidence that they will succeed, gender-based socialization, fear of failure, and lack of competitiveness (Oplatka, 2006; as cited by Meseret, 2016).

 Too many tasks and responsibilities

Family and home responsibilities or misalignment of personal and organizational goals were early contributors to women’s lack of administrative success, either because the demands of family on women aspirants restricted them or because those who hired believed that women would be hindered by family commitments (ShakeShaft.et.al, 1989; cited by Hirut, 2014).

Commbs strengthens this idea as married women are responsible for more than half of the domestic tasks in their households. Home has become a refuge for men and pressure and hard work for women. Obtaining affordable childcare may hamper the progress of younger women to management (Commbs, 2004; cited by Hirut, 2014).

Newly assigned married female leaders, especially women who are at the age of reproductive are obliged to take all the loads of the house hold in addition to their leading responsibility. And, Jennifer pointed out that, beginner female leaders assume leadership positions in addition to their roles as mother, wife, and/or student. Each role has its own set of demands that must be met. The pressure of these demands can sometimes cause stress and force female leaders to feel out of balance (Jennifer, 2011). Due to the above reasons they see women in management as women without children or grown children because their dual duties as mother and manager will interfere with her work as manager (Commbs, 2004; cited by Meseret, 2016).

… It is likely that one of the major factors affecting the differences between male and female’s career experiences are family responsibilities (Coleman, 2002; cited by Hirut, 2014). In Limerick and Anderson’s (1999) study among English principals, only a childless female principal did not report having problems to achieve a balance between the conflicting demands intensified by reforms that took place in that country (Oplatka, 2006; cited by Hirut, 2014).

 Socialization and sex-role stereotyping

Socialization begins within the family and goes through the community whether it has positive or negative impact on both sexes (male and female). Perception of society towards female signifies that male and female are poles apart according their sex. A male manager may be viewed as goal oriented, a woman as overly ambitious; a man is described as passionate, a woman as highly emotional; a man is seen as a clever mediator, a woman as manipulative (Reinarz, 2002; cited by Hirut, 2014). Moreover, sub-Saharan cultures have traditionally excluded women from leadership positions and limited the work of women to the home activities.

Researchers have suggested that without women’s input by holding back their involvement in education, leadership, and financial and social advancement has a negative impact on development and society at large (Bauer & Brinton, 2006; Chisholm, 2001; Kevane, 2004; Lucas, 2001; Mutindi, 2001 cited by Keller, 2011). For increasing women’s belief and confidence in their abilities, women were found to need moral support and sense of trust from their families (Osler, 1997); as well as extensive mass of educational programs coupled with conscious efforts to change traditional values (Handleman, 2000; Cited by Oplatka, 2006).

 Too few role models, mentors and networks

Some of the reasons that women have not participate in leadership and decision making are few role models, mentors and networks.

 Few Role Models

A reason why women have not moved into administrative positions in larger numbers is lack of opportunity for women to see other women in a variety of management positions, to hear their experiences, to compare themselves to these managers (Commbs, 2004; cited by Meseret, 2016). Availability of few women role model leaders and confidantes in the organizations creates working situation in which women may not feel particularly supported, encouraged, or represented. It also shows that the activities in the organization inevitably reflect the dominancy of the males and men experiences. In view of the fact that there is shortage of women leaders it is another challenge for a woman who aspire leadership in Ethiopia particularly in Addis Ababa (Hirut, 2014).

 Lack of mentor

“Often female administrative aspirants do not recognize that they possess the ability to succeed in a position of leadership. The mentor plays a key role in reinforcing the mentee’s belief in herself and her abilities.” (Barker, 1996, P: 49;cited by )

In a study conducted in 2004 by Catalyst, a research and development organization that focuses primarily on women’s issues, 56% of female and 52% of male executives reported that having an influential mentor or sponsor was an important or very important success strategy (Patricia, 2010). Lack of mentors is thus the problem for women aspiring to move upwards and this could be minimized by getting more women in leadership positions. At the middle and higher levels of leadership positions there is lack of women leaders who could mentor newly appointed managers. So it is ought to mentor women which is not an ideal situation, and the lack of women mentors is a problem to women in management positions (Commbs, 2004; cited by Hirut, 2014) .

 Lack of Network

According to Martin, (2011) networking is the art of building relationships. Networking is essential to the success of beginner female leaders, not only for political implications but also for improving feelings of isolation. For effective leadership, not only intellectual abilities of a leader but also a leader’s good networking with the people concerned in different areas is essential; this may be relationships with employees, members of governing body, Stake holders and staffs.

“In leading an institution, we need the cooperation of people working at different stages. But, if there is acceptance in sex discrimination the women leaders could not be successful. After all they are forced for resignation. Developing and maintaining connections within the network is as important as acquiring the skills to do the job (Patricia, 2010; cited by Hirut, 2014) ‘.

 Lack of qualification

According to Coleman (1996:322) it is not the lack of qualifications, but focusing in the wrong subject that causes difficulty when applying for promotion post. As we compare men and women, the numbers of those who are capable to qualify themselves are men. This could be another obstacle for women who are seeking the highest hierarchy of leadership position.

The CEDAW, 1993; affirms that as a problem in Ethiopia women’s least participation in engaging themselves in self-development program which could improve their promotional opportunities is domestic responsibility of their role as housewives and mother.

Therefore, because of these problems, the participation of women in education is near to the ground as compared to men and as the result of this fact , males unlike females have the access to education and self-employment in different positions than females.

 Glass wall ceilings

Dana and Bourisaw (2006); from their finding expressed strong women as follows; “though strong women can make both men and women feel uncomfortable. Their technique challenges feminine customs, in particular, women’s leadership.

This strength, if not exercised properly, can create discomfort and distance with organization management members, staffs, and the community.” The words “aggressive” and “bitchy” have been used to describe “strong” women (Dana and Bourisaw, 2006, p. 123 cited by Polka and Litchka 2008).

The glass ceiling is not simply a barrier for individual women, but it also applies to women as a group, who are kept from advancing simply because they are women.

 Devaluation of women with the societies

As a woman is assigned at leadership position every mistake even the very small error is seen exaggerated. It is clear that a working person unintentionally makes an error any time anywhere. But in female employee the mistake is seen more overstated. When women hold positions in management, all eyes are on them and comments are made about the smallest error.

They are under constant public inspection due to the perception that women are less able to cope with crises, and are not capable of leading (Commbs, 2004; cited by Hirut, 2014). Society’s attitude toward appropriate male and female roles is another obstacle that identifies women as not enough task-oriented, too dependent on feedback and evaluations of others, and lacking independence (Growe & Montgomery, 2000). The devaluation of female begins from family the way they treat their children and continues at school.

 Problems Associated with Policy Implementation

The gender issues have not been well integrated and addressed in strategies, rules and regulations, programs, plans and activities to the expected level. Gender mainstreaming is weak owning to capacity gaps of staff involved in planning, monitoring and evaluation. This is partly reflected in weak gender mainstreaming practices, inadequate expertise on gender, and lack of adequate, functional and efficient gender office structures.

Although affirmative action is implemented for entry to higher education, it is not backed by systematic and flexible retention mechanisms to ensure comparable number of graduates. According to the CEDAW, 1993; the constitution of Peoples Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) in 1988 reflects Government’s policy regarding women in development gives general assurance asserting that “The state shall provide women with special support, particularly in education, training and employment, so that they may participate in political, economic, social and cultural affairs on equal basis with men (P: 10).”

The convention signed states as such however the problem is still not clear whether it is on the implementation or within the policy itself.

 Drawbacks of Affirmative action implementation

Even if affirmative action is meant to address the gender inequalities persisting in the society, some staff and management members consider the affirmative action for entry as rather a cause for low academic achievement of the beneficiaries. Affirmative action taken by the Federal Civil Service Commission (FCSC) has resulted in the promotion of women in leadership and decision-making positions. Moreover, a number of women in the civil service in all personnel committees have increased. Affirmative action is implemented in the civil service to benefit women in recruitment as well as to encourage women to participate in the Commission. Change in the regulation of the Commission has created new benefits for female workers that ensure their well-being, particularly their psychological health.

The national constitution has been developed to protect the fundamental rights of women and their interest of access and control over resource, about equality among women and men in marriage. It recognizes the history of inequality and discrimination suffered by women in Ethiopia. Ethiopian women are entitled to remedial and affirmative measures to enable them to compete and participate on the basis of equality with men in political, economic and social life. Women have the right to protection by the state from harmful customs and practices that press them or cause bodily or mental harm. They have equal right to employment, promotion, affirmative action is undertaken to improve the employment status of women through the revision of the civil service codes and existing labor law. (source)

 Institutional factors that hinders women

Brunner (1997) posits that all barriers experienced by women in administration are a result either directly or indirectly of an andocentric society (Patricia, 2010; cited Hirut, 2014). Institutional structures, including qualifications and required work experience, promotion procedures and job descriptions may help or hinder women’s progress to leadership (Sperandio, 2010; cited Hirut, 2014).

A study conducted by USAID-IQPEP (2012) also indicated that lack of political commitment is the major problem for inadequate number of organizational leaders. Besides, less attention is being given to women’s specific needs and concerns imbedded in the multiples of household and office based responsibilities.