Natural Disasters: Hurricane Katrina

Natural Disasters

From 2003-2018, there have been 21 major disaster declarations made in the state of Texas (FEMA, 2018). These types of events include “hurricane(s), tornado, storm, high water, wind-driven water, tidal wave, tsunami, earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide, mudslide, snowstorm, or drought, or regardless of cause, fire, flood, or explosion” (FEMA, 2018). In the last 15 years, there have been 13 major disaster events that have affected the gulf coastal area: 7 hurricanes or tropical storms, 4 incidents of severe storms and flooding unrelated to hurricanes, and 2 incidents of wildfires.

(FEMA, 2018).

In Texas, natural disasters are prevalent. When writing about Hurricane Harvey, one Houston area reporter stated, “Now if you’re a long time Houstonian, you know as well as I do that we’ve seen floods before and we will again. Our geographic location guarantees it” (Mathews, 2017). The Houston area has been affected by some of the worst storms in history. The deadliest storm in U.S. history, the storm of 1900, hit Galveston and the city of Houston.

In 2001, the costliest tropical storm in U.S. history, Tropical Storm Allison, made landfall in Houston, costing $5 billion in damages. In 2017, Hurricane Harvey became the wettest storm in U.S. history, dropping record amounts of rain in areas, and is the second costliest hurricane at $125 billion in damage; the first being the 2005 Hurricane Katrina (FEMA, 2018; Mathews, 2017). The gulf coast region is not the only area frequented by natural disasters. From May 2015 to June 2016, there were six major disaster declarations made in other areas of Texas with some areas being repeatedly affected by two or three disasters (FEMA, 2018).

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According to FEMA records, there are areas of Texas that have a history of repeated disasters and have the potential to be impacted by natural disasters in the future. Understanding the history and frequency of natural disasters in certain areas sheds light on the impact that repeated disasters have on individuals residing in these areas.

Impact on Community.

Natural disasters can reshape the demographics and the day-to-day interactions of a community. After Hurricane Katrina, entire communities were flooded, displacing thousands of individuals (Pfefferbaum, Jacobs, Van Horn, and Houston, 2016; Remley, 2015). Many individuals never returned to New Orleans, causing long-term changes to the demographics of the city. As the population changed, there was an increase in the number of elderly individuals and single individuals as well as a significant decrease in the number of children (Remley, 2015).

Individuals displaced from the damage and flooding of natural disasters may lose their homes, precious sentimental items, their way of living, and even loved ones (Boulanger, Floyd, Nathan, Poiteyant, & Pool 2013; Steffens, 2008; Walker-Springett, Butler, & Adger, 2017). The aftermath of natural disasters may cause individuals to question if it is worth living in an area where they may experience this loss again (Dass-Brailsford & Thomley, 2013; Mitchell et al., 2008). For some individuals, the economic loss from losing homes creates anxiety and uncertainty about the future and contributes to negative overall wellness (Lowe, Joshi, Pietrzak, Galea, & Cerda, 2015; Mitchell et al., 2008;Walker-Springett et al., 2017).

The destruction and change of communities is not the only factor individuals may face after a natural disaster. After a natural disaster many individuals may deal with a variety of mental health issues. These issues include anxiety, an increase in depressive symptoms, and, most commonly, post-traumatic stress disorder ([PTSD]; Norris & S C, 2017; North & Pfefferbaum, 2013). Children who have lived through natural disasters are especially vulnerable to PTSD and may show signs of anxiety, depression, and behavioral issues (Dass-Brailsford & Thomley, 2013; Hebert & Ballard, 2007; Pfefferbaum et al., 2016; Scott, 2014). The effects of natural disasters during important developmental periods may impact children for years (Kousky, 2016).

Individuals who seek treatment and help post-disaster may be impeded by the lack of available resources. In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina the basic infrastructure of the city of New Orleans had been disrupted. Across the city roads were closed, buildings were flooded and damaged, and in many areas there was no electricity for weeks (Madrid & Grant, 2008; Osofsky, 2008). Those individuals seeking treatment may be met with a lack of available mental health professionals in the area (Madrid & Grant). Hurricane Katrina displaced many local mental health professionals, and destroyed private practices (Madrid & Grant, 2008). Those seeking treatment could not always access the information they needed due to issues with phone signals, lack of access to working phones, and lack of access to the internet (Madrid & Grant, 2008; Osofsky, 2008). Natural disasters can restructure communities due to individuals leaving the area, may be associated with negative mental health, especially in children, and can limit the resources and ability of professionals to facilitate treatment. These impacts on communities and individuals may worsen as climate change leads to stronger natural disasters, potentially causing more damage to the affected areas.

Potential Impact of Climate Change.

Natural disasters are inevitable; however, there is evidence showing that climate change effects may be leading to an increase in ferocity of natural disasters. The warmer waters caused by climate change fuel storms allowing them to grow larger and worsening their impact when they make landfall (Liberto, 2017). Researchers are exploring adaptive ways to slow the effects of climate change in such areas as well as adaptations to prepare cities for future natural disasters (Dilling, Daly, Travis, Wilhemi & Klien, 2015; Joyner, 2013). However, these adaptations may be creating new vulnerabilities for cities. For example, Dilling et al.,(2015) uses the adaptive levee system in New Orleans meant to protect a city from flooding as well as provide a space for the public to utilize. Yet, as storms become more powerful, the adaptation systems can be overwhelmed and fail. Researchers suggest the failed adaptation systems may lead to more damage to property and individuals’ lives than if the systems had not been there (Dilling et al., 2015). These adaptations can give individuals in the community a stronger sense of safety, causing many to shelter in place increasing their vulnerability to the effects of a storm (Reily, Guikema, Zhu, & Igusa, 2017). With stronger storms and outdated adaptations protecting communities, there may be more damage to areas in the future. The damage from natural disasters can have lasting impacts on communities and individuals. When storms are linked to climate change, individual’s interactions may become more negative, may worsen community ties, and hinder recovery efforts (Coyle & Van Susteren, 2012; Gifford & Gifford, 2016).

For individuals in the affected community, there may be lasting impact on their mental health. It is estimated that 200 million individuals will at some time in their lives experience emotional distress from the effects of climate change, such as severe flooding and strong hurricanes (Coyle &Van Susteren, 2012). Many individuals experience ecological stress and anxiety pre and post natural disasters, potentially leading to depressive symptoms, psychological trauma, and other mental health issues (Doherty & Clayton, 2011; Gifford & Gifford, 2016; Helm, Pollitt, Barnett, Curran, & Craig, 2018). The impact of climate change on individuals’ mental health and the potential worsening of damage to a community is important to consider in the future of post-disaster counseling.

Post-Disaster Counseling

A major disaster declaration by the President of the United States allows the government to place crisis counseling teams in the impacted areas, as part of the individual assistance benefits (Emergency Management Assistance, 1990; FEMA, 2018). Many programs, including small federally mandated programs, county programs, and larger organizations such as the American Red Cross, provide post-disaster counseling services. These programs work with many types of mental health professionals and professional organizations. For example, the American Red Cross trains licensed mental health professionals (e.g., school psychologist, professional counselors, school counselors, psychiatric nurses), retired mental health professionals who have maintained their license, and currently enrolled graduate students in a mental health-eligible field to provide care in these areas (American Red Cross, 2017). These professionals may provide brief support, coping information, practical assistance, psychological first aid, ensure safety and comfort, and connect affected individuals to resources or social support (Hasket et al., 2008; North & Pfefferbaum, 2013). The professionals involved in post-disaster programs come from all over of the country, are local residents, and work in towns where evacuees are relocated (Akin-Little & Little, 2008; Campbell, 2007; Marshall, 2007). Counselors who live in the affected area provide long term counseling locally and/or may travel to work with evacuees in a different city (Dass-Brailsoford & Thomley, 2015; Marshall, 2007).

Professional Counselor’s Role in Post-disaster Counseling

A professional counselor’s role in post-disaster counseling may differ from the individual counselor’s typical professional role. Post-disaster counseling may require professional counselors to have specific training or credentials. Professional counselors should be prepared to work in unusual settings and may have to alter their approach to treatment based on resources available.

Training. Post-disaster counseling training varies depending on the location of the disaster and the perceived needs of the population being served. Researchers commonly note more education in the post-disaster area of the counseling field is needed (Bowman & Roysircar, 2011; Carello & Butler, 2015; Merrimann, 2015), and training in trauma, catastrophes, and the risks of working in areas affected by natural disasters should start in counselor graduate programs (Bowman & Roysircar, 2011). Current CACREP standards for professional counseling masters programs, set in 2009, requires education on trauma, disasters, and crisis training (CACREP, 2016). However, students have expressed interest in learning more in depth about these topics in the classroom, with some feeling they have only received a limited exposure to disaster mental health, trauma, and crisis counseling (Greene, Williams, Harris, Travis, & Kim, 2016; Thompson, Frick, & Trice-Black, 2012).

Counseling students and interns who received case-based learning in the classroom or field experience with disaster mental health, trauma, and crisis counseling were more prepared for the realities of post-disaster counseling (Greene et al., 2016; Culver, Mckinney, & Paradise, 2011). Early education and training should put an emphasis on the risks of vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue, and the importance of supervision and self-care. Vicarious trauma refers to a counselor experiencing negative psychological effects from being exposed to a client’s trauma (McCann & Pearlman, 1990), while compassion fatigue result from empathizing with clients who are suffering (Figley, 1995). Supervision and self-care may mitigate the symptoms of vicarious trauma and compassion fatigue (Campell, 2007; Carello & Butler, 2015; Merriman, 2015). Even with education and training, those who had prior experience in the field through a supervised internship were better equipped to handle the potential negative symptoms of vicarious trauma (Culver et al., 2011).

For counselors already in the field, tailored training and education on signs of compassion fatigue have been noted to be useful (Campbell, 2007; Jordan, 2006; Norris, Hamble, & Rose, 2009). Tailored training can be useful when post-disaster counseling programs train mental health professionals and para-professionals, addressing each professional’s role in post-disaster situations. In addressing these roles, individuals can become aware of what specific job they have, the specific risks associated with their job, and each professional’s role in working with one-another (Hansel et al., 2011; Jordan, 2006). Tailoring the training to each professional allows individual counselors to gain knowledge about their specific work environment.

Tailored training focuses not only on the types of professionals involved in post-disaster counseling but focuses on the particular needs of an affected area. Training can provide knowledge about the specific yet varied needs of communities in an affected area, stress cultural differences of an area, and teach counselors to be mindful of these differences in post-disaster counseling (Bowman & Roysircar, 2011; Jordan, 2006; West-Olatunji & Yoon, 2013). Norris and S.C. (2017) note how communities may see post-disaster counselors as valuable resources when counselors are culturally competent for the area they are serving. Competent training has increased counselors’ satisfaction in their work, taught counselors the importance of self-care in post-disaster settings and can prepare counselors for the differing work environments of post-disaster counseling (Campbell, 2007; Hansel et al., 2011).