History and Systems of Human Services

The focus of this paper is on foster care systems within the United States. Thousands of children enter the foster care system for varying reasons yearly. Some of these children are reunited with their families, some are adopted out of the system, while others “age-out” of the system. Some of these children are brought into the system because of neglect, while others had been abused in unbelievable ways. Some parents do not have the means to care and provide for their children; while others may have a lack of understanding of their children’s needs (esp.

children with special needs, i.e. Autism). It is the responsibility of child services workers to identify and aid these families. In some cases, the children are removed from their homes and placed in temporary homes (aka foster homes).

Even after the removal of the children, it is still the continued responsibility of the child service worker to provide aid and assistance to parents so that the family may be reunited.

Herein, the author suggests and provides strong evidence and examples for the inappropriate removal of children, and the reunification of families; and how this should be the main goal of the foster care workers-be it with the children’s parents or other family members willing to care for the child. This paper will further suggest proper organizational management and legislative policies, and procedures, child services workers can utilize to offer widespread assistance to parents attempting to retain custody of their children; while also extending families (esp.

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children) with counseling for adjustment and separation while in the foster care system.

Foster Care Systems

The foster care system is a subject that is very important to today’s society, regardless where one lives (state-to-state, rural, city, suburb, etc.). The family dynamic has changed noticeably in the past several years. These days there are more single-parent families than dual-parent families; there are more teenage parents; grandparents raising grandchildren, etc. There are also more “latch-key kids”, left home alone to their own devices while their parent works long hours (or in some cases, out using and abusing drugs and alcohol). Today’s continuous shifting family dynamics are thought to be the cause of the rising reports of child abuse and neglect incidents (due to single-parent frustrations); parents who do not have the means to care for special needs children; job loss or cut in hours, etc. What is known is that there have been major rises in reports of child abuse and neglect within recent years; and more services (housing placement and subsidies; employment assistance; medical and psychological treatment and insurance, etc.) are necessary to aid these families and give parents a greater chance of being reunited with their children.

Historical and Current Views of the Foster Care System

In colonial America, children were taken in by other adults and families when they had been abandoned, orphaned, or bonded to another family to learn a trade and receive an education. Later, privatized and government run institutions were set in place to take in children who have been abandoned or orphaned. Today, there are very different view regarding the foster care system, its policies, procedures, etc. A main component within the relation between the “input side and the output side” is the involvements and sentiments of residents concerning the deeds of the state, as residents responsible for authorizing legislative state influence (Skivenes and Thoburn, 2017). Many within communities today believe that children should stay with their families, even if it is not with their parents. Others in these communities further believe that children should not be randomly placed within foster homes; they believe they should be placed with individuals of their same race, culture, religious background, etc.; thus, they favor placing children with other family members as an alternative to traditional foster care.

Traditional Foster Care

Traditional “foster care” was first utilized when parents would send their children to others to live and receive an education. Hacsi (2017) notes that within colonial America, children from all lower socio-economic ranks were occasionally sent to families where they lived, worked, and learned a trade; this was a communal way of tending to orphans and other dependent children. However, it was also believed to be suitable for children from higher socio-economic classes too. Hacsi states that “Between 1800-1850, orphan asylums became a widespread way of caring for children from impoverished families; at the same time, changing conceptions of childhood helped narrow the use of indenture to children from very poor families” (Hacsi, 2017).

The foster care system further evolved when unmarried young women and girls abandoned their newborns on a stranger’s doorstep; and continuing to evolve into the system we currently have today. There have been many issues and accusations that have come to pass that have many within the community questioning the allegations that led to children being taken from their parents; and, the ways foster parents care for the children in their care (allegations of abuse and neglect within the foster homes themselves). For this reason, foster care reform has come about through many forms, including kinship care.

Kinship Foster Care

The number of children in out-of-home placement who are situated within the homes of relatives has intensified quickly and significantly; this placement is called, Kinship care. This is a newer form of the foster care system. Today kinship care is attempted to be the first venue for child care workers to utilize. Hegar and Maria (2017) note that “…kinship care has been used by the Child Welfare League of America (CWLA) Commission on Family Foster Care, which, in cooperation with the National Foster Parent Association, developed goals and recommendations promoting relatives and friends as placement resources for children in out-of-home care.” (Hegar and Maria, 2017).

Investigation and Prevention of Placement

Historically, children were taken from their family homes due to, many unfounded, complaints of neglect and abuse. There have always been underlying causes that have formed the ways that disadvantaged youths were, and are, treated. Parental hardship has always intensified the risks of children being detached from their families and placed away from the home; be it in other homes or institutions. The general public’s unwillingness to offer adequate assistance to keep needy families together has required privatized organizations and government representatives to organize assistance for “children whose parents cannot care for them”.

Hacsi (2017), also noted that child abuse and neglect, which typically ascends from the stresses shaped by acute poverty, became frontpage news within the 1870s, and have continued to be community problems within current years. Current foster care systems aid a populace whose essential setback is poverty. Unfortunately, children now entering the foster care system are “poorer, younger, and far more troubled than those in the past, and they are staying in care for longer periods of time” (Hacsi, 2017). A major clue in the history of child placement is the part played by state representatives as they gradually participated in child welfare.

Governments, historically and currently, almost always prefer situating and rooming children with family and friends over organized care. It was found that intuitions and government officials took were more careful than private organizations when investigating potential foster parents, and typically clarified that child must be remanded as a state dependent, who might be separated from the home at any time. In recent past, governments have worked nationally, state-to-state, with new occupations, mainly social work, to form the current child welfare system.

Evaluation of Psychological Needs of Children and Families

Most children entering the foster care system have varying degrees of psychological and physical health issues, stemming from maltreatment of their parents; at the same time, these parents also have psychological, physical, and substance abuse issues. It is important for child services workers to properly evaluate and understand the needs of the families they are assisting before making the decision to remove the child. In many cases, it is advised that child service workers first refer the family to medical and psychological health professionals for assistance with psychological and physical problems focusing on the child’s physical and mental health.

Child psychological assessments. Many studies have concluded that several children who experienced abuse and neglect before entering the foster system, could endure experiences of mistreatment subsequently after entering the foster system. Therefore, disturbingly, some children continue to be in jeopardy of “neglect, physical abuse and sexual abuse,” even after a lengthy separated from their parents. (Katz, Courtney, and Novotny, 2017). This mistreatment is sometimes done by the fostering parents, while other times the abuse is initiated by another child. Consequently, it is important to have a thorough psychological assessment done, by a licensed professional, on all children considered to be placed within the foster system. It is also advisable to place the child on a regular counseling schedule and support group for children of neglect and abuse.

Mental health care of families. It is vital to conduct a proper and complete psychological assessment of children and their families to prevent acute psychopathology in adulthood. Studies have proven the relationship between child maltreatment and, “pediatric and adult mental health outcomes”. These studies suggest that maltreated children may be at higher risk for “psychopathology secondary to abuse and neglect, separation from maltreating parents or caregivers, and out-of-home placement instability.” (Gonzalez, 2014). For children who have experienced severe maltreatment, traditional counseling and behavior modification is not enough to reach these children. It is highly advised that Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) be used.

TF-CBT is a psychosocial treatment method proposed to treat post-traumatic stress and associated emotional and behavioral difficulties in children and adolescents. TF-CBT is an “evidence-based model with demonstrated effectiveness” and has been accepted as an “evidence-based practice by the National Child Traumatic Stress Network and the National Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center” (Gonzalez, 2014). It is further recommended that mental health care and therapy for families involved with the foster care system should be consolidative and frequently up-to-date by a multifaceted restorative process. Analytic appraisal and treatment procedures should be resultant from clinical knowledge, pragmatic research and evidence-based restorative methods. Mental health treatment allows mistreated children and neglecting families attain a extent of balance and malleable execution essential for strong coping and psychological modification.

Children’s behavioral health needs. It is widely known that providing care for children within a foster or adoptive care setting is difficult enough; however, it is even more challenging for caregivers to care for children with behavioral health needs. This can cause severe stress on caregivers, promoting undesirable consequences for both, children and caregiver. Expressing behavioral issues such as the refusal to conform to authority and hyperactivity are common of children within the foster system; these issues were found to transpire at frequencies much more complex than the wide-ranging populace of children within the community. Barnett, Cleary, Butcher, and Jankowski (2018) suggest that legislators, finance agencies, mental health administrations, and specialists are also encouraged to methodically study the success of trauma informed child and mental health amenities to additional applicable child and family results.

Contributing and Evolving Societal Issues

There are several contributing evolving societal issues that have impacted children within the foster care system. A major contributing evolving societal issue is the challenges child service workers face linking fostering services with appropriate socio-economic based services. Many challenges current child care workers face with families they investigate and aid, relate to poverty, unemployment and inequality; as well as the stressors they face because of these factors. This issue can be seen around the world, and especially within the U.S. Child services workers depend upon the foster system to offer an atmosphere favorable to the rearing of foster children.

Another major issue is adoption, emancipation, and aging-out of the foster system of older children. It is common that younger children (age 5 and younger) are expected to be put in traditional foster home placements for adoption when family reunification is not possible; thus, these children may spend a substantial amount of their lives in foster care. The time these children spend in foster care (with regular re-placement of children) exacerbates the child’s mental health and other needs. T

hese needs are especially heightened for children who have spent their entire lives moving from foster home to foster home; who have not been adopted; who have not been given the opportunity to emancipate; who have age-out of the system. For the mental health, educational well-being, and stability of these children; if not returned to their parents or primary guardians, placement must be within a permanent home as quickly as possible. Constant moving from foster home to foster home can not only cause severe mental distress, social and self-esteem problems; it can also affect the child’s possibilities within academic and employment options when aging-out of the system.

Child services workers who are active in both administrative and non-administrative welfare establishments have a critical part in fulfilling the distribution of amenities to children and their families within the foster care system. Connecting fostering services with socio-economic amenities can be very complex for child services workers. In relation with evolving methods, statutory child services workers must not emphasis solely upon foster services based upon a therapeutic standpoint; yet, they must also embrace a socio-economic progress concentration. Due to excessive caseloads and operational trials resulting from a growing call for foster service amenities, “statutory social workers do not operate within a developmental social service paradigm” (Dhludhlu and Lombard, 2017).

Many parents within Dhludhlu and Lombard’s study, articulated apprehensions that children are not referred to social workers or other professionals for assistance. Dhludhlu and Lombard’s study specifies that grants for foster children may provide positive settings for a foster child’s education; however, a lack of support and recognition of learning education approaches to understand how foster children understand and recall new material within academics and how this influences the criteria of their education. This can hinder not only a child’s education, but also future professional career.

Older Children Aging-out of Foster Care

It has been commonly thought to be beneficial to adopt children while they are young (infants, young children), then it is to adopt older children (6-years and older) and especially teenagers. However, adoption has also been found to benefit older children and teenagers. These ties, although late in life, can be beneficial to the child’s overall development and self-esteem. It has also been found to be beneficial for children at state approved ages to be emancipated (legally viewed as a legal adult at the age of 16 or 17-years-old). This gives competent young adults the ability to live on their own and care for themselves. In a case the author was involved in, the emancipated youth was required to report to a child care worker once a month for a year to prove residency, grades (high school attendance and graduation or progress towards a GED was required to stay emancipated during the 1-year trial period), and proof of employment; if at any point during that year, the youth’s emancipation was revoked and placed back in to care.

Nonetheless, many children do not get adopted, nor are they allowed to emancipate-out of the system for varying reasons. For this reason, many children age-out of the system; due to cumulative influences (such as psychological and emotional insecurities; constant re-placement of homes and school systems) many of these children are ill-equipped for the adult world by the age of eight-teen. Labor force specialists within the US are disturbed that children are not attaining the skills needed for accomplishment within today’s economy.

One of the many issues the US is facing is the necessity to generate achievable post-secondary routes to respectable employment for those who did not finish high school. Barnow, Buck, O’Brien, Pecora, Ellis, and Steiner, 2015 note that post-secondary routes are predominantly perplexing for children within the foster system; for those who are at higher risk of developing insufficient work abilities because of “unstable housing, multiple school changes, lack of life skills and limited employment experiences” (Barnow, et.al., 2015). Young adults ageing-out of the foster system are also more likely to quit high school, are unemployed, and dependent upon family and friends, or public aid-in comparison to children who were not placed in the foster system, emancipated, or adopted out at an early age.

There are many philosophical and ideological perspectives regarding the foster care system. Many debate on the logical and ethical perspectives of society today compared to those of the past. As afore mentioned, many believe that permanent placement of children is crucial for their well-being and stability. However, there are others who believe there must be more attention paid to where children are permanently placed, if not placed back within their homes.

These individuals believe that children should stay within their own racial, cultural, and religious affiliations. Many cite that children are in more danger of abuse and neglect within traditional and out-of-home foster homes than they were within their own homes-even with parental maltreatment; due to cultural misunderstandings and linguistic gaps. There have also been many accusations and cases of foster parent abuse and neglect; as well as abuse caused by other foster children and siblings which causes further anxiety and worry among individuals within communities.

While there have been few studies pertaining to peer-violence in residential foster homes, little has been concluded about peer-violence within the foster system. Lutman and Barter (2017) remark that there are concerns that children within the system could be in jeopardy of suffering harmful peer relations, possibly due to their enhanced susceptibility to abuse; or because being in the system makes them feel and appear differently than others. Many believe that this type of abuse only occurs in out-of-home, or traditional, foster homes. Nevertheless, this type of behavior has been seen occurring more frequently within family-kinship foster care.

The calculated rate of abuse in Lutman and Barter’s study was slightly higher within kinship care than in other care settings. They found that, “92 young people were abused, of which two (2%) were abused by a sibling and five (5%) were abused by ‘other children’.” (Lutman and Barter, 2017). As appealing as it may be to place children in kinship care-children living in foster family care; sometimes, this is not in the child’s best interest, particularly when there is a generational history of abuse and neglect within the family.

Foster Care System Political and Social Reform

Political and social reform regarding the foster care system is vital for the survival and success of the future leaders of the world. There have been many individuals who have gone through the foster care system; were bounced from home to home; attended more schools than they could count before high school; and age-out of the system. These individuals face more obstacles and complications related to graduating high school, attaining suitable employment, attaining and keeping a home, psychological problems and substance abuse, etc. However, when considering perspectives of society (nationally and internationally) there are other opportunities for reformation of current systems, policies, and programs that can turn these children’s lives around in a positive light; preparing them to be positive, contributing members of society.

Many past programs have inspired newly aging-out and foster care alumni to persevere in their academics; thus, giving them advantages to attain the same employment and other opportunities-for themselves and other foster care alumni and newly aging-out individuals. Colvin (2018) gives a very inspirational story of a young man who was removed from his mother’s home after years of neglect, then moved to around fifteen different foster homes until his 18th birthday. This young man is now a “three-time alumnus of Western Michigan University and an associate professor of social work at Michigan State University” (Colvin, 2018). This is an excellent example of how programs for children within the foster care system should be prepared for college or university.

Given the appropriate tools and support, children who age-out of the system may supersede their peers who have never been in the system, or were adopted out at an early age, or emancipated. Thus, it is important for political reform of the foster care system to properly prepare these children for their future endeavors and successes, based on social demand for reform.

Comparing the US and Norway Foster Care Systems

It is very beneficial to take into consideration foster care systems of not only state-to-state policies within the US; it is also beneficial to consider other countries’ policies and procedures regarding foster care systems. The US and Norway are both considered to have superior policies and procedures in place for their foster care systems in their own right. It has been found by a study conducted by Berrick and Skivenes (2013), that the child welfare systems within these two countries follow a similar pattern. Berrick and Skivenes note that the US is theorized to be the model of a “liberal welfare state”, encompassing an ideology of minimal participation by the state incorporating few general services. Norway, on the other hand, is considered the model of a “social democratic welfare state”, encompassing a constricted welfare safety net that extends to numerous general welfare services.

According to Berrick and Skivenes, the Norwegian welfare state has a practical method to their foster care system, through regulation, strategy and service necessities. This exhibits the responsibility for “at-risk children” belonging to the welfare system. Within the US, however, there is a “hands-off” approach; even though states play a major part when obtaining official custody of children from their parents. These children’s care is widely contracted out to individual families who are expected to be accountable for focusing upon children’s care and requirements. It is ventured that differences are consequent to public views of government as dependable and unswerving. Current indication agree upon US views that are cynical of government commitment and results. While popular views within the US regarding the grade to which the public have confidence in their government differ “over time and most notably by condition of the economy, well under 50 percent of US adults ever claim to ‘trust’ the government.

Public views in Norway and other Nordic countries are noticeably different with high levels of trust in government” (Berrick and Skivenes, 2013). Comparing the US and Norway foster systems, it is significant to observe that comprehensive welfare systems are motivated to generate additional chances for improving foster children’s well-being. Consequently, the US prototype for foster care has formed an bumpy caregiving system with access to amenities for children reliant upon the conditions and resilience of individuals employed within the child services systems. Incorporating methods of different countries’ foster care systems may assist in developing superior programs for children within the system to help prepare for their future.

Comparing State-to-State Foster Care Policy within the US

There has been continual debate regarding the efforts of stats efforts to protect children from abuse and neglect by their parents and primary caregivers. Many within the community, professionals, experts, and researchers believe that a National foster care system should be implemented; this system would mandate the same preparations for assistance to families, removal of children from the home, and proper foster care placement. There have been many studies that show differences in state methods of child protection; that are controlled by policy administration wherein officials feel trapped in to making decisions to remove children from their homes based on the severity of local and state ordinances (i.e. the assembly of a state’s social policy government). Edwards (2016) recognizes that children have been detached from their families and placed into foster care more regularly within states that have disciplinary penalizing criminal justice systems than states with broad and substantial welfare programs.

Nevertheless, Edwards further notes that, “large welfare bureaucracies interact with welfare program enrollment to create opportunities for the surveillance of families, suggesting that extensive and administratively complex welfare states engage in “soft” social control through the surveillance and regulation of family behavior” (Edwards, 2016). It was widely known in the 1980s and early 1990s that many states that had strict punitive ordinances for such things as petty crimes, domestic abuse, misdemeanor assault, shop-lifting, etc., had a higher rate of children in their foster care systems. In many cases, children were removed from their homes because of multiple charges, arrests, and convictions. Furthermore, the degree that a state favors or reorganize punitive policies for tackling social problems touches both the occurrence of child protection interference and the type and extent of those interferences.

The foster care system is very important to today’s society regardless of one’s geographical location (state, rural, city, suburb, etc.). Today’s family dynamic has changed dramatically from that of the past. Due to the continuing shifting family dynamics in society, many believe that the cause of the rising reports of child abuse and neglect incidents. What has been presented tells us that there have been major rises in reports of child abuse and neglect within recent years; and more services have become more readily available to families in need (including, but not limited to housing, employment, education, medical, and psychological assistance) necessary to aid families and give parents a better chance of reuniting their family.

It is clear that there needs to be more research and in-depth studies pertaining to kinship care; peer-violence within the foster system; reformation of child welfare laws; and proper/updating training and education of child services workers. It is very difficult to raise children, especially those who have psychological and emotional issues. It is even more difficult to raise a child that is not yours with behavioral, psychological, and emotional difficulties. It is in the children’s best interest to be properly evaluated and placed in proper living quarters to ensure their stability and encourage developmental and mental health-especially for those children who are emancipated or aging-out of the system.